This report examines the role of housing and employment/training services for the inclusion of particularly vulnerable people. The report is an output of the EUROCITIES-Network of Local Authority Observatories on Active Inclusion (EUROCITIES-NLAO) – a network of five cities that have established Local Authority Observatories on Active Inclusion (LAOs) within their city administrations.

Despite different welfare state traditions, trends in social service provision are similar in the countries and cities studied. Therefore, with regard to the welfare state regime typology presented, a first conclusion of the EUROCITIESNLAO research48 therefore is that these ‘simple’ types are far more complex in practice and the local municipal approaches often seek to moderate the differences in political approach at a national level. The outcome is that, in practice, there is far more in common regarding the outcomes for services at a local level than might be assumed from ‘categorising’ political and welfare cultures in this way.

Cities are key to the delivery of social services such as social housing or social assistance services. Through their responsibilities as policymakers and service providers, they are involved in the whole cycle of service provision, from commissioning and procurement to delivery and evaluation. Also, cities play an important role in adapting European strategies, such as the Active Inclusion strategy and national strategies, to the specific needs and realities of their territories. It is at local level that policies are put in place to implement European and national strategies. Therefore, cities are in an excellent position to monitor the implementation of the Active Inclusion strategy, particularly about the third pillar on social services.